Caste system and the concept of social mobility
The caste system is a significant aspect of the Indian society, it originated roughly around 2000 BC to about 600 BC, the Indo-Aryan literature of Vedas such as the Manusmirti and Upanishads have shed light upon the caste system. In this system, the Hindus are divided into four classes based on the principle of Varna, which literally means colour: Brahmans (priests, scholars); Kshatriyas (warriors, rulers); Vaishyas (merchants) and the Shudras (manual labourers). Besides them, there was an additional ‘out-casted’ group called the Dalits, or the ‘untouchables’ who occupied the lowest step of the social ladder.
Defining Caste
The word ‘caste’ has been derived from the Portuguese word ‘casta’ which means pure breed, race or lineage.
M.N. Srinivas, eminent sociologist defined ‘’caste is heredity usually localised group, having a traditional association with an occupational and particular position in the local hierarchy of castes. Relations between castes are governed among other things by concepts of pollution or purity, and generally, maximum commonality occurs with the caste.’’
The renowned Indian sociologist GS Ghurye, assigned these features to the caste system: ascribed status, hierarchy, endogamy, restrictions on social intercourse and fixed occupation. Therefore, the caste system can be viewed as a closed and immobile structure.
Social mobility of caste during colonialism
During the period of colonialism, sociologists observed that there was slight mobility in the ancient caste system. The concept ‘Sanskritization’ was first introduced by Prof. M.N. Srinivas. He explained the concept of Sanskritization in his book “Religion and society among the Coorgs of South India” to describe the cultural mobility in the traditional caste structure of Indian society. He in his study discovered that the lower castes tried to raise their social status in the caste hierarchy by emulating and adopting some of the cultural practices of the Brahmans whereas the upper castes sought to westernize.
As a result, the lower castes stopped worshipping some of their idols and stopped consuming alcohol, meat which was considered impure by the Brahmans. The basic idea behind the adoption of the process of Sanskritization for the lower caste was to improve their standard of living, upgrade their social status and bridge the gap between the upper caste and the lower caste to give way to parity.
M.N Srinivas defined Sanskritization by writing, ‘’Sanskritization is the process by which a low Hindu caste or tribal or other group changes its customs, ritual, ideology and way of life in the direction of a high and frequently, twice-born caste.’’
However, the practice of Sanskritization was criticized on many levels; it led to no structural change but positional change for some members, higher caste was seen as socially desirable, led to erosion of Dalit culture, detrimental for women and supported the idea of social exclusion and inequality.
Social mobility of caste postcolonialism
In the first phase of the Backward Classes Movement in the 20th century, the traditional aspects of the caste system were still strong. The higher castes resented the effort of the “low” castes to achieve higher status and rank by an appropriation of the symbols of higher rank. Social mobility occurred but there was no structural change. The hierarchical order of social stratification remained intact.
In the second phase, the power of politics was realized so the principle of caste quota was introduced in educational, administration and technological institutions. The lower castes were given the political status of ‘’backward’’ class which enabled them to be first-generation learners and obtain seats in educational institutions, scholarships, jobs in the administration and job promotions. It was decided that the constitution of India would uphold democratic, secular and socialist ideals.
However, the ‘’backward’ ’classification was not sufficed to gain political power, prestige and fight against the traditional caste system. These members then began to mobilize into caste sabhas and associations. They tried to claim higher caste rank and took up welfare activities for caste fellows, such as building caste hostels, colleges, houses on cooperative basis and hospitals. After India became independent in 1947, the Indian leaders hoped that legislative and legal measures would reorder an entrenched social structure.
A new constitution was drawn which abolished untouchability and prohibited discrimination in public places, Article 17 of the Indian Constitution abolished the practice of untouchability (1955). To help the lower castes and classes to overcome their low social status and poverty, special places were reserved for untouchables in government services, and in the lower houses of the central and state legislatures. Over the years the reservation has helped the Scheduled Tribes and Castes and Other Backward Classes. Mandal Commission(1978) was formed under the Janta party government. Its role was to determine criteria for defining India’s “socially and educationally backward classes”; to recommend steps to be taken for the advancement of those classes. The state began practising the policy of affirmative action also known as positive discrimination to help the lower castes.
Social mobility of caste in contemporary times
The current Indian society is characterized by urbanization, industrialization, privatization and constitution of law which has led to weakening on the caste system. Earlier the stringent rule of social exclusion of castes and prohibition on intermingling can be hardly seen the urban setup. The government hasn’t only practised positive discrimination but also set up organisations like the National Commission for Scheduled Castes under Article 338 so that safeguards provided to them are enforced. The most powerful way to mobilise the status of the lower caste is by the means of education. Hence, the state has taken initiative to provide scholarship, fellowship and coaching of OBC and SC students.
Politics unlike before independence doesn’t exclude the lower caste but rather solidifies caste for vote bank politics. A study by the Indian Human Development Study shows that Dalits are far more politically aware and active than the forward castes. This shows that Dalits are taking initiative and being self-dependent which augurs well for Indian society. Contemporary politics has opened a window of opportunities for all castes. In politics, a self-explanatory example of downtrodden caste can be the formation of Bahujan Samaj Party (1984) to represent the Scheduled Castes and OBCs. Many of the backward caste groups have risen to a well off economically and even politically status. It can be seen in the case of Yadavs in Bihar, UP and the Jats in Haryana.
However, this doesn’t mean that caste hierarchy has become irrelevant. Providing legal sanctions and opportunities in the arena of employment, education might be open for all but at a conscious level caste discrimination still exists. The most recent case of caste hierarchy and discrimination can be of two Dalit children were allegedly beaten to death by two upper-caste men for defecating near a village panchayat building in Madhya Pradesh’s Shivpuri district on 25th September.
Caste system in contemporary India has steered a division between those in rural and urban areas and created a lower caste middle class. Even though professions and occupation aren’t based on caste, anyone can become a scholar or a merchant but they should the cultural, social and economical capital. The state policies have mobilized the economic status of the lower caste however their social status isn’t at par with the upper castes. In many cases especially in villages despite positive discrimination, most of the communities who were in the lowest strata in the caste hierarchy remain low in the social order even today. Most of the degrading jobs are even today done by the Dalits, while the upper caste remains at the top of the hierarchy by being the doctors, engineers and lawyers of India.
I would like to conclude by saying that the legal framework of India may have weakened the caste system and made caste system comparatively fluid but discrimination, prejudice, a sense of superiority and inferiority still exists amongst its members. Oppression and powerplay are the key elements of the caste system which have disseminated into other religions in India, with Christians, Muslims, Sikhs and Jains all employing similar forms of social stratification.
References:
Srinivas, M.N. (1952), ‘’Religion and society among the Coorgs of South India’’
Dusarathi Bhuyan (2006), ‘’Castism in Indian Politics ‘’
Gurye G.S. (1950), “Caste and Race in India”
Srinivas, M.N. (1963), Social change in modern India
